Back to the 1997, The IMF Crisis in South Korea

IMF considered like other in the region, Korea took off from a state of the Asian poverty and stagnation and achieved the Asian Miracle. But this process of rapid growth came to a halt, temporarily, by the Asian Financial Crisis. In Short, in the mid of East Asia countries like Thailand, Hongkong, Malaysia, Philippine, Indonesia were in a period financial crisis, Korean government was in failure at controlling of foreign exchange.

During the boom years, Korean economy undertook large investments financed by large external short-term borrowing. When the economy especially exports-slowed, these large investment and borrowing caused. Traditional policy responses were ineffective in an environment of globally integrated markets, where confidence factors play a crucial role.
Korea's financial crisis deepened in late 1997.

Key events
(Dec 1996 - Nov 1997)

Dec 1996 : Korea joins the OECD. It means Korea was recognized as a international level and Korea's economy had to be open outside. Before that  Korea's company was covered by Korea government and had dept ratio over 500%~1,000%. After joining OECD, Companies in Korea had no competitiveness in the world markets. Economy crisis started.
Major companies in Korea collapsed in a row.
Jan 1997, Hanbo Steel fails with $6bn debts.
March, Sammi Steel collapsed.
April, Jinro Group became bankrupt.
May, Dainong and New Core Group collapse.
July, Kia(South Korea's third-largest car maker) asks for emergency loans.
Oct, Korea nationalizes Kia after banks refuse more loans.
Nov 21, 1997, Korea asks for the IMF assistance
Dec 4, IMF approves $21bn stand-by credit to Korea, $5,5bn disbursed.
Dec 30, Korea strengthens economic program, additional $2bn is disbursed.
                                                 

Exchange Rate
Oct 17-19 Exchange market virtually closed.
Oct 20 Exchage rate band widened to 10%
Now 17 Won(\) drops below 1000 to the dollar.
Dec 16 Abolished daily exchange rate band
Dec 23 Won falls near 2000 to the dollar.
Jan 14 1998, Won drifts around 1600-1700 to the dollar.

                                                  (Source : IMF )

As companies couldn't handle with exchange rate, they started to layoff. Dec 26, 1996, National Assembly passes new labor legalizing lay-offs and maintaining a ban on free union association. Nationwide strikes against new law. This new labor law is one of the main reason of increasing temporary workers in South Korea, which is still serious economic problem in Korea.

Which responses to this unprecedented crisis of people in Korea?
The answer was Gathering Gold Movement.  To pay for their country's debt people sacrificed their own gold. At that time, foreign debt was up to $30.4bl. Almost 3.5million people gave away their gold and was collected 227 tonnes in total. In history movement like this had a precedent, which was national debt redemption movement in 1907. This is a typical example that in the mid of economic crisis, people's sacrifice for restoring national economy(I'm not sure that this will happen when crisis happen again in the future).

Dec 4, 2000, President Kim daejung, officially announced the end of IMF crisis, paying all of loan from IMF. Aug 23, 2001 IMF's controlling system on Korea terminated.


(After this, released official report by IMF) 
IMF supported Program.
The program aims at,first, stabilizing the exchange market, and then, preparing the ground for resuming rapid growth, by maintaining appropriately tight financial policies and implementing comprehensive structural reforms.
- The exchange market stabilization depends crucially on the restoration of confidence through on appropriate external financing strategy(debt rollovers, IMF borrowing, etc.) and by maintaining the market determined exchange rate combined with high interest rates. Strong commitments to reform and other program policies are also crucial.
-Financial policies will have to be appropriately tight to maintain macroeconomic stability. But the automatic fiscal stabilizers will be permitted to work, and interest rates can be lowered on stabilization objectives area achieved.
- Reforms include financial sector restructuring, improvements of corporate governance, greater flexibility in labor relations and accelerated liberalization of capital controls and some remaining trade restriction.
  

Under the program, liberalization of the capital account and some remaining trade restrictions has been accelerated. Also, improvements are being made regarding the traditional government corporate relationship, inter-enterprise arrangements and even the management style of each corporation. These improvements will lead to the strengthening of the Korean and the east Asian approach to rapid economic growth.  


+There is also Wikipedia article on 1997 Asian Financial crisis (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis#South_Korea) also in Korean.

Problem of UN

Problem of UN

 

The UN is an international organization established to maintain peace and prevent

Internal atmosphere of UN is not bright now.

A diplomatic source said, “Now, there occurs a lot civil war and there is destruction of human rights. Situation is not as good as the Cold War. but, UN is powerless.”

Public opinion is also not friendly.

New York Times (NYT) writes the title "United Nations Security Council is 'stiff ly hardened (sclerotic)'" and they have criticized UN that can not keep the peace.

Also, The UN is listening to the critics of “do nothing ‘Plants United Nations’.”

Syrian civil war has had ‘refugee crisis’ in the world as prolonged for five years, but the United Nations has yet proposed a little solution.

The United Nations figure is difficult to find in nations happening the civil war and conflict such as South Sudan, Yemen, Israel and Palestine

Although the United Nations has not its own army, it can submit resolution and approve to dispatch troops. But these ‘weapons’ rusted.

The biggest reason is that the veto of the Security Council permanent members.

Leaders overcame the Second World War 70 years ago initiate UN. but they forget their spirit that keeps peace and security in the world.

because they take advantage of the veto in the secular world politics gambling for containment and bargain with each other.

for example, France offered an alternative to refrain from veto to act against humanity including genocide, but no one don’t agree except the United Kingdom.

so, It is virtually obsolete state.

I think UN have obligation that keep peace and security In the world.

they should more interest in world problem.

They should effort for their obligation.

How tragic Syria is.

These day, all over the world are unanimous against ISIS(Jihadist Group). The Jihadist Group attacked Paris and over 100 people were died because of them. World are afraid by them, and people are upset about their terrible terrorism.

Isis: UN in rare unanimous vote calls on world to unite against jihadist group

With a rare rapidity of purpose, the United Nations has unanimously adopted a sweeping anti-Isis resolution imploring the world to unite to defeat Isis. It called on member states to “redouble and coordinate their efforts” to prevent further terrorist horrors by the group and “eradicate” its safe havens straddling parts of Iraq and Syria.

The vote in the Security Council dramtic barely 24 hours after the text was presented in New York by the French ambassador to the UN, François Delattre. Stunned by the attacks of one week ago in Paris, the French government had correctly calculated that sympathy and a new sense of crisis in the chamber would trump months of dithering and division on the combined issues of Isis and the Syrian conflict.

READ MORE

Mali attack is another miserable day in a bitter war without frontiers

The pressure was greatest on Russia and China, both veto-wielding permanent members traditionally averse to any resolutions that could be perceived as interference in another country’s affairs. But Russia recently suffered the downing of the Metrojet airliner over Sinai bearing passengers from Egypt to St Petersburg and this week Isis claimed it had executed a Chinese national.

The resolution does not invoke Chapter VII of the UN charter specifically to authorize the use of outside military force within the borders of a sovereign state. It was nonetheless crafted in a way clearly meant to give countries additional diplomatic and political cover and impetus to target Isis and eliminate it.

Now UN, France and Russia soldiers started to counterattack to ISIS. So many Syrian people are in trouble and difficult situation. They are ranked 162 of 162 at the rate of GPI score. It means they are the most tragic and disrupted country in the world. 

How korea can influence to other asian countries in political way

South Koreans are now also starting to talk about promoting the story of the country's political transformation as much as its economic success. South Korea's industrial progress has attracted most attention, but the country's transition from the brutal authoritarianism of the post-war strongman, Park Chung-hee, into one of Asia's most vibrant democracies is at least as impressive.

“the way to help a country is not only to give money but to share experiences.” Of those studying at the institute over the past decade, Cambodians feature strongly, alongside Vietnamese, Indonesians, Bangladeshis and Mongolians.Interest has surged among the Central Asian republics of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

From 'The Economist' 02-2012

link : http://www.economist.com/node/21547865

Political Globalization

1. Summarize in your own words of materials you read

  The concept of political globalization is also multidimensional, accelerated and interconnected organization of space and time across national borders. Such as other form of globalization. Political globalization is process of make world postnational and transnational. In political globalization process, nation-state is decreased by the impact of global forces which have created different kinds of politics arising from and the development of transnational networks and flows, on the other, processes of de- and reterritorialization. Processes of political globalization open up new emancipatory possibilities, while for others globalization leads to a loss of autonomy and the fragmentation of the social world. In this article, highlights the multifaced nature of political globalization, which is best seen as a relational dynamic rather than a new kind of reality. Political globalization, can be understood as a tension between three processes which interact to produce the complex field of global politics: global geopolitics, globalnormative culture and polycentric networks.

  A first demension of political globalization, is the global geopolitics. Global geopolitics is a territorially based kind of globalization and largely confined to the political form of the nation-state. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the communist regimes in Europe after 1991, democracy has become the universally acceptable form of government. The famous thesis of the ‘end of history’, it does not means end of ideology. Spread of liberal democracy did not lead to the end of ideology but to the proliferation of more and different kinds of ideology. The globalization of democratic

politics has been the basis of the so-called ‘new world order’. It associated with the bid for world wide supremacy by the United States and the legitimation of global wars. But, The United States will not beable to establish global supremacy and will be challenged by many centres of power.

  A second dimension of political globalization refers to the rise of a global normative culture. The main expressions of this is human rights and environmental concerns such as sustainable development. It is also a dimension of globalization that is not specifically Western. The sovereignty of the state has been challenged by the rights of the individual leading to tensions between peoplehood and personhood. States were once the main agents of global norms. But these days, a global normative culture has

come into existence beyond the state system and exists in a relation of tension with states.

  A third dimension of political globalization is polycentric networks. It is less related to states and which is not reducible to global normative culture. This is forms of nonterritorial politics and which cannot be reduced to a single centre. It is associated with emerging forms of global governance.

Political globalization’s three dynamics makes some social transformation such as, the transformation of nationality and citizenship, the public sphere and political communication, civil society, and space and borders.

  In politics, communication is very important thing. The Public sphere is now pervaded by what can be called a global public. In global public discourse that political communication and public discourse. The importance of civil society to political globalization lies in its potential to organize resistance to the global hegemony of capitalism and/or the United States.

Political globalization has a strong influence on the many parts of world. However, it made some of tensions, such as state versus civil society, cleavages between traditional and industrial economies.

2.Mention of any new, interesting, or unusual items learned, 3.Identify at least one question, concern, or discussion angle

 

  This article was pretty difficult to me. Because, I have no interest in politics. But, the part of global normative culture was pretty interesting. Above all, Environmental part is interesting. I didn’t know that environmental concerns such as sustainable development is parts of political globalization. In modern days, I think that sustainable development is very important concept. Because, current world is well developed, and the environment has been sufficiently contaminated. I think development should consider a environment better then progress. To do that, government and NGO should help each other.

  Sustainable development and worry about environment pollution is not so difficult to developed nations. For developing countries, however, it is another situation. Is it fair to developing countries apply to the same global environment regulation of developed nations? If not, What is proper global regulation for developing countries?

 

 

 

Political Globalization

Political Globalization

1) Summarize in your own words of materials you read

Today's globalization is a new phenomenon appeared in society since the mid-20th century, Globalization of politics, economy, culture, society, the boundaries of the modern sovereign nation-state that is based on the geographical segmentation of the territory in areas such as the weakening global environment is one of the world society in the process of integration.
We have seen how political globalization is associated with the changing relationships between state, society and the individual, and the new transnational or global communities, networks and publics which have come into existence and which are in turn driving new forms of politics.
Central to understanding these developments is the idea of civil society which perhaps more than any other development has come to symbolize the political potential of globalization, and signals the onset of globalization from below. The global is not outside the social world but is inside it in numerous ways. So it is possible to see political communication in the public sphere as increasingly framed by global issues. In terms of the three-fold conceptualization of globalization discussed earlier, it may be suggested that global normative culture is playing a leading role in shaping political. The concept of civil society is much contested and for present purposes it simply refers to the political domain between the state and the market where informal politics takes place. In global terms this corresponds to new spaces beyond the state and the inter-governmental domain and which are independent of global capitalism. The three dynamics of political globalization will be examined in this chapter around four examples of social transformation: the transformation of nationality and citizenship, the public sphere and political communication, civil society, and space and borders.


2) Mention of any new, interesting, or unusual items learned

(1) political globalization

- The absolute sovereignty of the political boundaries of the nation-state that has been segmented based on the weakening of the political dimension of political integration at the global level this phenomenon is going to increase development

- United Nations (UN, 국제연합)
① political ability to resolve disputes at the World Social
② intervene in human rights issues within the nation-state
③ dispatch peacekeepers

- European Union (EU, 유럽연합)
① political integration of the European continent
② that puts the European Parliament

- World Government but is not established
- Phase of the nation-state

① border control, cultural control, central control weakness
② the global level, the small, local, national level, the cursor will position the country to decline, but still visible phase is expected to perform powerful permissions and roles


(2) the globalization of the economy

- Beyond the economic sovereignty and borders of the nation-state of the world it is integrated into a single capital market development to move freely and goods, labor
- Strongly backed by neo-liberal globalization as a representative figure of today
- WTO, IMF, international economic institutions such as the World Bank, the capitalist developed countries, driven by transnational corporations, etc.

(3) The globalization of culture

- Sovereign nation-state cultures, special traditions, values, etc. related to culture beyond borders, information, etc. This phenomenon is shared simultaneously at the global level exchanges, spreading phenomenon
- Facilitated by the development of mass media and information media
- Liquidity of Culture, Complexity, universality increases
- Nomadic cultural nature, cultural fusion, western culture (Christian culture, individualism, rationalism, consumerism) common, capitalist culture spread

(4) The globalization of civil society

- National or transnational capital in response to the global order of the central phenomenon of global civil society as a third force is formed
- Citizens sahoeyi globalization of the world civil society, should individual citizens on the basis of solidarity and networks

Cultural Globalization

Cultural Globalization

 

1) Summarize in your own words of materials you read

We have to understand definition of culture and globalization in order to know the meaning and character of ‘cultural globalization’. In all these ways, it is quite clear that we are living in a much more globally connected world today than even 20 years ago, and in longer historical terms the level of global interdependence is without precedent. The globalization process may lead to a single global culture in future. In fact, we can see the unifying world in the economic sphere recently. In the past, social and economic processes and practices are the ‘independent’ phenomena. But now, the world is considered a ‘single place’. This make many problems. The ‘Third World’ does not partake of the globalized economy or of globalized communications in the same way as the developed world. We have to review the true meaning of globalization by saying that it is an unfair process. We will concern about the exclusive western culture in our world. Let us now try to connect these thoughts about the institutionalization of identity with the issue of cosmopolitanism. The way we can do this is to understand the cosmopolitan disposition – the sympathy with a globally encompassing humanism and with rights and obligations belonging to this – as belonging to a specific identity position.
 

2) Mention of any new, interesting, or unusual items learned
Cultural conflicts caused by globalization.
  - The culture of any group is developed through the process of digesting accept other cultures.
  - When unfamiliar culture seems to accept cultural conflict occurs.

The globalization of culture

- it was carried out slowly for a long time with the movement of people.

- This is to increase the speed of the recent cultural exchange was faster.

- As different cultures meet with the development of media and communication technologies will ease the increasingly globalized culture.

Standardization of culture and fusion
- Cultures of the world have become increasingly similar phenomenon.
- Phenomena that constitute a new culture and a unique culture and spread the culture of local bonds.
 

3) Identify at least one question, concern, or discussion angle

I do not unconditionally accept the diversity of cultural acceptance.

For example, Korea's large discount stores and warehouse-type discount stores in the West, unlike sell packaged fresh food and various goods such as vegetables, fruits, like people who like the market in small quantities. But while the West continues along the hypermarkets are not bound to be contraction in traditional markets is our country tradition, I think it can go gradually lost when the country's unique culture so. The growth of the hypermarkets should be suppressed like a free enterprise is not growing and the traditional markets as well as support and promote the exercise of active government in the traditional markets.

Political Globalization

by Gerard Delanty and Chris Rumford

 

 

 

1) Summarize in your own words of materials you read

  Political globalization is the form of globalization that brake boundaries among nations. This means that our society is becoming a postational and transnational world. The nation-state, it is decreased by the impact of global forces that the development of transnational networks, flows and processes of reterritorialization. The multifaced nature of globalization is the most important thing for the approach to political globalization. Political globalization is a tension between three processes which interact to produce the complex field of global politics: global geopolitics, global normative culture and polycentric networks.

  Since the end of the communist regimes in Europe after 1991, democracy has become the general form of government. The United States will not be able to establish global dominance and will be challenged by many centres of power. Thus, globalization gives the democratic nation-state worldwide acceptability, and geopolitics of global power is the first dimension of political globalization.

  The global normative culture is a second dimension of political globaliztion. It is independent of geopolitics and This means that a dimension of globalization is not specifically Western. The global normative culture emphasizes a human rights. National politics is framed in terms of global discourses.

  The polycentric networks are related to global governance. Global governance means global civil society. United Nations, European Union and many other IGOs are the form of the global governance. A global civil society has come into existence around INGOs.

  The three dimensions of political globalization can be examined around four examples of social transformation: the transformation of nationality and citizenship, the public sphere and political communication, civil society, and space and borders.

  Globalization transforms the state around global capitalism, making it impossible for nation-states to be independent. It is important that not a demise of nationstate but a transformation of nationstate.

  The ‘civil societalization’ of politics both reinforces the idea that politics is increasingly informed by a normative global culture and points to the transformation of the nation-state as a site of political struggle. In other words, the ‘civil societalization’ of politics signifies a commonality of political forms which link the local and the global, the national and the transnational, and mobilizes a range of actors around common political codes: competitiveness, sustainability, personhood rights and social justice.

  The point of political globalization is the civil society. It is not real political globalization that America, Europe and other powerful nations govern the world society. Indeed, political globalization has to work to create the possibility for a proliferation of sites of political conflict around an expanded set of concerns: governance, identity, mobilities and community prominent amongst them.

 

 2) Mention of any new, interesting, or unusual items learned 

  I’m interested in two facts. One is the INGO(International Non-Governmental Organization), the other is a Civil Society.

INGO is not a governmental organization but a private organization. INGO reflects public opinion to the UN, asks itself about agenda that is resolved in UN, and does lots of things such as making executable programs, improving human rights, banishment of poverty and maintaining the world piece.

  I think that the civil society may be the best political globalization. In this chapter, I found that global civil society can resolve the contradictory tendencies.

Especially, I was interested in this paragraph ‘The centrality of global civil society to political globalization inheres in its location at the confluence of processes leading to the construction of mechanisms of polycentric governance (Scholte 2004) and the emergence of transnational movements and networks which are working to erode more territorial organizational forms.’

 

 3) Identify at least one question, concern, or discussion angle 

 I didn't understand this chapter very well. A economical and cultural globalization have more examples than politics. I think the point of this chapter is the civil society. Not solitary or some powerful nation’s governance but polycentric governance is the aim of the best political globalization. But in political circles of one nation, many politician fight each other because of the political globalization. This means whether one nation accepts the policy of other nation is the problem. The public may need a better policy that is became effective in other nations. Then, for the civil society, what we have to do? and why we need the political globalization?

 

Hacktivists

On the topic of hacktivists mentioned in class yesterday, I would like to expand on the topic as I personally find it very interesting. Hacktivists are people that use computers or computer networks to promote a political agenda.

I do not know about you, but when the word "hacktivist" is mentioned, I immediately think of the group Anonymous. Famously represented by the Guy Fawkes mask, this group of hacktivists have targetted several cooperations and governments for a number of issues.

Past targets of Anonymous included government agencies of the US, Israel, Tunisia, Uganda, and others; child pornography sites; copyright protection agencies; the Westboro Baptist Church; and corporations such as PayPal, MasterCard, Visa, and Sony. The Anons have also publicly supported WikiLeaks and the Occupy movement. 

Their most recent target is the ISIS, after their recent acts of terrorism on Paris, France. The Anons warned ISIS: 

"You should know that we will find you and we will not let you go."

"We will launch the biggest operation ever against you."

"Expect massive cyber attacks. War is declared. Get prepared."

I personally feel that the Anonymous "organization" is really cool as they are gathering for a collaborative act that unites not only the French, but 'hackers' from all over the world to stand up against the terrible and inhumane acts of terrorism by ISIS. I guess this is something that governments cannot do since they are always laden by bureaucracies, red tapes and the burden of maintaining diplomatic ties. 

http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/anonymous-declares-war-islamic-state-6839030

Political Globalization

Political Globalization

 

The concept of globalization as used in this chapter means the multidimensional, accelerated and interconnected organization of space and time across national borders.

 

The approach to political globalization adopted in this chapter highlights the multifaced nature of globalization, which is best seen as a relational dynamic rather than a new kind of reality.

 

The first dimension of political globalization is the geopolitics of global power.

 

A second dimension of political globalization refers to the rise of a global normative culture.

 

While globalization requires the existence of global players, there is another dimension of globalization that is less related to states and which is not reducible to global normative culture.

 

And polycentric networks are associated with emerging forms of global governance.

 

 

The three dynamics of political globalization will be examined in this chapter around four examples of social transformation: the transformation of nationality and citizenship, the public sphere and political communication, civil society, and space and borders.

 

 

The notion of the decline of the nation-state in a post-statist world of governance without government should be replaced by the idea of the continued transformation of the nation-state.

 

The nation-state does not ‘wither away’ but becomes transformed by becoming a practical component of this transnational apparatus and a major agent of global capitalism.

 

It is evident that what is being discussed here is a transformation of the nation-state rather than its demise.

 

Throughout Asia, Africa, Central and South America, nation-states are on the whole the main expressions of political mobilization and identity. Globalization has enhanced not undermined them. The two most powerful actors in the world today, the United States and China, are nation-states. Europe and the movement towards the transnationalization of the nation-state is undoubtedly an exception.

 

However, the aspiration to national autonomy cannot hide the general movement towards the transnationalization of the state and the even more extensive movement towards a geopolitics of global power.

 

Two kinds of decoupling processes are evident: the decoupling of nationality and citizenship and the decoupling of nationhood and statehood.

 

The decoupling of nationality and citizenship can be attributed to the impact of global normative culture, which has led to a blurring of the boundary between national and international law.

 

Communication is central to politics. Collective identities were codified, reproduced and legitimated. Most nation-states have been based on a national language.

 

The public sphere is the site of politics; it is not merely a spatial location but a process of discursive contestation.

Until now this has been mostly conceived of as a national public sphere.

 

The role of the public also well documented, as is evidenced by the significance which is now attached to the public sphere, and which must be conceived as having a cosmopolitan dimension.

 

I think we should transform public sphere and global communication.

it means that we changes because public sphere is our place.

So, we should think how to great change.

In more and more changing world, we have to adapt and change greatly.

 

The discursive construction of the social world takes place within the wider context of global communication in which the global public plays a key role.

 

In The Centrality of civil society, Central to understanding these developments is the idea of civil society.

The ‘civil societalization’ of politics both reinforces the idea that politics is increasingly informed by a normative global culture and points to the transformation of the nation-state as a site of political struggle.

 

 

Global civil society holds the promise of resolving contradictory tendencies which have become central to the experience of globality.

 

The first contradiction is that between the tendency of globalization to homogenize and the increasing emphasis on and respect for difference.

The second is the contradiction within the individuating power of globalization, which works to fragment, while at the same time allowing for the construction of new types of autonomy represented by new communities of interest, networked polities and collective identities.

 

Global civil society is not defined in relation to a state.

In other words , the growth of global civil society is the result of increasing opportunities for interaction between domestic and international politics.

So, I think that the growth of global civil society is very important.

 

 

The image of a ‘borderless world’ has long been associated with thinking about globalization.

we learn about globalization in Sociology of Globalization.

when we think Globalization, we think this sentence ‘we are the one’.

This mean that world is one. So I agree borderless world.

Moving beyond the ‘national scheme of things’, we confronts the need to rethink space and borders in the global knowledge economy and the networked society.

If we view globalization as social transformation, that is to say a transformation in the very nature of society, its relation to the state and citizens, then we must rethink the nature and meaning of political spaces and borders.

In other words, the rescaling of politics has caused a major reassessment of the role and meaning of borders and spaces in the construction of polities.

 

Spaces and borders do not have to be conceived as unitary and exclusive.

Importantly, the nation-state no longer dominates the spatial imagination and global spaces abound the world is a single place and political activity and individual consciousness increasingly reflect this.

 

The focus on new spaces and new forms of connectivity has led to a realization that space is constitutive of social and political relations, not simply a ‘given’ which comes with the territory.

 

 

One important consequence of this shift to spaces of flows is that mobility is increasingly seen as independent of space conditions of globalization the quantitative relation between borders and territory has been inverted.

There are two dimensions to this:

1.borders are to be found everywhere, existing both within and between polities. 2.borders have become important spaces in their own right and often take the form of zones of transition or borderlands

 

To conclude, we can point to three dilemmas to which these complex relationships give rise and the implications for the tension between autonomy and fragmentation.

 

First, the globalization of the nation-state, and its model of political membership and institutionalized governance, has given form to the universal aspiration for democracy.

 

Second, global normative culture, which has been disseminated by INGOs over a long period of time and has scripted the development of the nation-state as a global form, has also acted as a vector for global norms of personhood positing a world of individuals sustained by human rights law.

 

Third, polycentric networks, and in particular the development of global civil society, create new opportunities for autonomy and the recognition of a range of new actors and new modes of governance, but, at the same time, can create new

instabilities and dangers.

 

Political globalization has worked to create the possibility for a proliferation of sites of political conflict around an expanded set of concerns:

governance, identity, mobilities and community prominent amongst them.

 

Topic of this reading is Political Globalization.

So, when I looked the topic, I worried. because I don’t know well this political parts. So, this reading is not concentrated to me.

I want to discuss about “ The Transformation of spaces and borders.”

Global is more and more boundless through such as Internet.

To me, meaning of ‘boundless’ is to help each other.

but, still a few nation fights for own needs.

So, I want to know accurate meaning of word ‘boundless’ and

I wonder that how we help each other for each needs , not fighting.